Optical discs

Overview


Optical discs are digital storage formats that encode binary data. Most formats are 12 cm in diameter:

Image source

View of a compact disc (CD). Image source: J.M. Eargle. The Compact Disc (CD). In Handbook of Recording Engineering. Boston: Springer (1996): 462.

There are three primary types of optical disc:

Type of optical discDescriptionExamples
Prerecorded CDs and DVDsDisc is prerecorded by injection molding and metallization. Requires production of an encoded master and injection molding stampers. Data is stored in "pits" impressed into the base layer and protected with a very thin metal layer.CD-Digital Audio, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM
Recordable CDs and DVDsDisc is recorded with laser.CD-R, DVD-R, DVD+R
Rewriteable CDs and DVDsDisc is recorded with laser at higher temperature.CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW

Timeline


DateEventReference
1978Phillips, MCA, and Pioneer release LaserDisc format. LaserDisc was the first time optical discs were used for storage. They had many benefits over VHS, but they did not gain in popularity due to high cost, limited storage (approximately 1 hour of video), and lack of ability to record video.
1990CD-Digital Audio discs allow for multiple sessions (i.e., linear series of tracks bounded by a "table of contents" with location and descriptive metadata)Alex Duryee, "An introduction to optical media preservation," Code4Lib 24 (April 16, 2014). 
1997DVD format is introduced. DVD quickly became the leading format for distributing pre-recorded video and could also store computer information and data. One DVD can hold up to 4.7 GB of data (2-3 hours of standard video).
2006Sony introduces Blu-ray format
2006Toshiba introduces HD DVD format

Physical composition


Basic layers of prerecorded CDs and DVDs

The following table summarizes the basic layers of prerecorded CDs and DVDs:

CD-DA / CD-ROM
(single-sided)
DVD-ROM
(single-sided, one recorded layer)
DVD-ROM
(single-sided, two recorded layers)
DVD-ROM
(double-sided, one recorded layer per side)
DVD-ROM
(double-sided, two recorded layers per side)
Label, optionalLabel, optionalLabel, optionalLabel, optional (hub area only)Label, optional (hub area only)
LacquerPolycarbonatePolycarbonatePolycarbonatePolycarbonate
MetalCentre adhesiveMetal (fully-reflective)MetalMetal (semi-reflective)
PolycarbonateMetalCentre adhesiveCentre adhesiveAdhesive

PolycarbonateMetal (semi-reflective)MetalMetal (fully-reflective)


PolycarbonatePolycarbonateCentre adhesive



Label, optional (hub area only)Metal (fully-reflective)




Adhesive




Metal (semi-reflective)




Polycarbonate




Label, optional (hub area only)

Table adapted from

Byers, Fred R. Care and handling of CDs and DVDs: a guide for librarians and archivistsCouncil on Library and Information Resources and National Institute of Standards and Technology (2003).
https://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/reports/pub121/pub121.pdf.


Basic layers of recordable and rewritable CDs and DVDs

The following table summarizes the basic layers of recordable and rewriteable CDs and DVDs:

CD-R, CD-RWDVD-R, DVD-RW, DVD+R, DVD+RW, DVD-RAM
(single-sided)
DVD-R, DVD-RW, DVD+R, DVD+RW, DVD-RAM
(double-sided)
Label, optionalLabel, optionalLabel, optional (hub area only)
LacquerPolycarbonatePolycarbonate
MetalCentre adhesiveRecording/writing layer (dye)
Recording/writing layer (dye)MetalMetal
PolycarbonateRecording/writing layer (dye)Centre adhesive

PolycarbonateMetal


Recording/writing layer (dye)


Polycarbonate


Label, optional (hub area only)

Source

Byers, Fred R. Care and handling of CDs and DVDs: a guide for librarians and archivistsCouncil on Library and Information Resources and National Institute of Standards and Technology (2003). 
https://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/reports/pub121/pub121.pdf.

Base layer

The base layer is polycarbonate.

Dye layer

DyeColourDescription
CyanineBlue-greenSynthetic dye with many uses in industry. Green and light blue dyes used in CD-R and DVD-R media are chemically unstable and must be stabilized. Least desirable dye.
PhthalocyanineGoldWas available for many years, but was not widely used until the early 2000s.
AzoSilver-blue

Types of optical discs


Risk assessment


  1. Optical media formats were conceived with data preservation in mind, but digital material stored on optical disc is now considered to be at high-risk of loss or degradation.

    1. Scratches from handling or faulty machines can result in data loss.

    2. Many discs are manufatured with low cost dyes and metals.

    3. Pens or markers with hard tips or solvents can affect the protective data layer.

    4. Optical discs can be affected by ambient heat and direct sunlight.

    5. Risk associated with the lack of expertise in identifying optical media formats.

  2. Stability of optical discs depends on the type of disc and the combination of dyes and metals used to manufacture the disc:



    Image source

    MAM-A, Inc. CD-R Dyes: How to Tell What's What. Accessed November 3, 2017.
  3. Digital material stored on optical disc should be appraised or re-appraised to determine the nature and significance of the material and whether it has sufficient value to justify reformatting and long-term preservation as digital files.

Types of damage and deterioration


ProblemDescriptionCauseRemedy
Breaks or cracks

Breaks or cracks usually cause optical discs to become imbalanced, which makes it impossible for the disc to spin in the drive.



Delamination

CDs are more vulnerable to delaminiation than DVDs because the thin layers susceptible to delamination are at the surface. 


Adhesive label removal

Rapid and extreme fluctuations in temperature and/or relative humidity (RH)

Physcal stress (e.g., bending of the disc)

No remedy. Error correction systems in playback equipment may compensate for minimal delamination. 


Scratches


Dirt/debris


Warping


Damage to moulded pits in read-only discsPre-recorded discs store digital information in "pits" that are moulded into the top of the base layer.

Pressure from sharp objects (e.g., pencil or pen)

Physical stress (e.g., bending)

No remedy. Optical disc systems rely on the error correction system to compensate for errors introduced by damage to moulded pits.
Fading of dyes in recordable discs


Damage to or degredation of the base layer


Damage to or degredation of the lacquer layer


Physical damage to or oxidization of the metal reflective layer


Manufacturing defectsManufacturing defects include impure reflective metal layers, thin layers, flaws in the pit moulding process, inconsistent dye layers.Defects are introduced at the time of manufacture.No remedy. Optical disc systems rely on the error correction system to compensate for errors introduced by manufacturing defects.
Damage to the table of contentsThe table of contents contains file system information and other data that is essential for successful playback.

Chemical or physical damage to inner portion of discs

No remedy. If the table of contents is damaged in a manner that cannot be compensated for by the error correction system or repaired by one of the previously stated remedies, the disc will not be be playable.


Source

Adapted from Joe Iraci, Remedies for deteriorated or damaged modern information media carriers - Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) Technical Bulletin Number 27Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada (2005).

Technical standards


General standards

  1. ISO standard 9660:1988. Information processing -- Volume and file structure of CD-ROM for information interchange.

CD-DA (Digital Audio)

  1. Red Book - IEC standard 60908:1999. Audio recording - Compact disc digital audio system.

CD-ROM

  1. Yellow Book - ISO/IEC standard 10149:1995. Information technology -- Data interchange on read-only 120 mm optical data disks (CD-ROM)

Software tools for working with optical discs


ToolOpen-source / ProprietaryDescriptionUses
CueRipper


DBPowerAmpProprietaryDBPowerAmp's "CD Ripper" tool offers multiple audio encoders and other useful features.Recover audio tracks as single WAV file with cue sheet
Exact Audio Copy (EAC)

Ripping audio tracks as WAV files
ISOBuster

Proprietary


Data recovery

Review properties of disc (useful for identifying CD-DA formats)

Opti Drive ControlProprietaryOpti Drive Control is a program for testing optical drives and optical mediaTesting optical drives and optical media
Sound eXchange (SoX)

De-emphasis

References


Bradley, Kevin. "Risks associated with the use of recordable CDs and DVDs as reliable storage media in archival collections - strategies and alternatives." Paris: UNESCO 2006). http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001477/147782E.pdf

Duryee, Alexander. "An introduction to optical media preservation." Code4Lib 24 (April 2014). http://journal.code4lib.org/articles/9581.

Eargle, J.M. The Compact Disc (CD). In Handbook of Recording Engineering. Boston: Springer (1996): 461-466.

Iraci, Joe. Remedies for deteriorated or damaged modern information media carriers - Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) Technical Bulletin Number 27Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada (2005).

Iraci, Joe. Longevity of Recordable CDs and DVDs - Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI) Notes 19/1. Ottawa: Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada (2010).

Pohlmann, K. The Compact Disc Handbook. Madison, WI: A-R Editions (1992).